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读书笔记
« 于: 2019-03-06, 周三 20:09:07 »
文章来源:http://www.biosmonthly.com/weekly_news_topic/8123

默会知识与两种意识
迈可.博蓝尼(Michael Polanyi,1891-1976)是著名的犹太裔哲学家,1958 年他提出了「默会知识」这个术语,以及一个重要的命题:「我们所理解的多于我们所能说的」,认为我们所拥有的知识未必都能诉诸言说。

近代以来,分析哲学以「知道的东西一定能够说出来」为立场,惟「命题知识」之为听,认为知识是理性对于认知对象的「表征」(representation),因而所有的知识都可以用概念、命题形诸言述。

博蓝尼的「默会知识」所要反对的正是这一种立场。对于「我们所理解的多于我们所能说的」这个命题,他提供了不少的案例,其中最经典也最完整的表述要属「用铁锤捶打钉子」的例子。

简单来说,在我们关于「用铁捶捶打钉子」这项知识的实践中,包含着两种意识:一个是我们把注意力锁定在钉子上的「焦点意识」,另一个是我们整合骨骼、肌肉、筋膜、神经等复杂生理机制的「支援意识」,好让我们可以执行一手拿钉子,一手挥动捶子的动作。如果没有支援意识的存在,我们的焦点意识就无法顺利执行,例如会造成挥动铁锤却敲到手指,或是无法固定钉子导致铁锤挥空等情况。博蓝尼因此提出,人类的知识是以「支援意识」为背景,以「焦点意识」为前景的「默会知识」。


其实,类似的例子也发生在我们的日常中。就像我们可以说出骑脚踏车的一般性规则──脚踩踏板,双手控制方向,身体保持平衡,但是任何人都无法仅仅依照这样的「言述知识」便立刻学会了骑脚踏车。又像开车,究竟转弯时方向盘要打几圈?路边停车时什么时候该打方向盘切进空位?又如同从头学习一种语言,就算我们掌握了声韵系统以及发音原则,但总是有一种「口气」不到位的感觉。

这些经验都显示了这样一个事实:知识无法仅靠指导手册的说明就传授或习得,因为所有的知识都是「默会知识」,其中有无法言述的支援意识,它们以隐没的形态内在于我们的身体记忆之中,这正是博蓝尼之所以说「我们所理解的多于我们所能说的」的原因。

知识,寓居于身体
博蓝尼特别强调「默会知识」中的「身体」因素。不难发现,以上所举的例子都需要身体的参与,所以「默会知识」的形成总伴随着身体的存在。这说明了知识的习得需要我们同时带着心灵与身体介入,而不是仅仅用理性映照客观知识的内容,因此他又提出了一个命题:「通过寓居而认知」(Knowing by indwelling)。

我们可以设想这样的情境:当一位盲人掌握了使用「手杖」的知识以后,他就能够以手杖碰触事物的震动,透过肌肉的接触与神经系统的传导,形成对于世界的认识。在此,盲人将自我寄讬在手杖之中,寓居其间,手杖因此不再是一个客观存在的事物,而是盲人身体的一部分,而因为寓居于手杖之中,他的世界变得和一个摸黑行走、颠簸碰撞的世界不再相同──因为他认知世界的「身体」已经不再相同了。


从另一面来说,一旦我们健全的身体因为疾病而损伤时,身体的不便将鲜明地形成许多知识与技能的障碍,此时我们会惊觉日常对于肢体的寄讬之深刻。试着回忆你落枕的经验,生活起居会有多大的改变,你会发现日常许多技能与知识的运作,竟如此深刻地寓居于身体。又如依赖手机生活的你,一旦手机故障或是遗失,会不会突然觉得自己少了一只手,甚至世界开始变得陌生?这都证明了,当工具或技能内化为我们身体的延伸时,它们便成为我们认知事物的「支援意识」。

因此,博蓝尼说:「默会认知的任何一种行动,都改变我们的生存状态,重新定向和收紧我们介入世界的活动。」借由身体的「寓居」,我们将知识对象、工具「内化」为身体的一部分,成为我们身体的延长与变形。每一次寄讬于新的知识之中,我们面对世界、认识世界、接触世界的方式就不会再与从前相同;每一次的默会认知,都是我们自身的变形,同时也带来世界的更新。

语言的隐默向度
说到这里,一定会有人质疑,上述的例子都是属于技艺或是操作技巧,这和语言与思考还是有差别的。所以,如果「我们所理解的多于我们所能说的」这句话可以成立,博蓝尼就必须说明:即使是以逻辑见长的语言,同样也是一种默会知识;也就是说:他必须说明「使用语言说话、表达、思考」也是一种技艺。

我们不妨思考一下「词语」与「词语的运用」之间的差异。尽管我们可以说明某个词汇或句子的意涵,但我们却很难直接说清楚某个人说某句话究竟想「表达」什么,因为语言的运用要参考的因素不仅是词汇的概念和语句的命题,同时还要整合情境、人物性格、知识背景、彼此的共同经验、传统等许许多多因素,这样才能决定自己的心意该用什么样的语句表达。


同样一句话,在不同的场合、被不同的人说出来,可能会有不太一样的意思;相同概念或命题的语言,用不同词汇的排列组合、选择不同的语句顺序表达,也可能会产生不太一样的效果。这说明语言不只是概念与逻辑,其中还具有一种与「身体技艺」相同的层面。

通常,我们会称这样的整合能力为「说话的艺术」,如果我们认为说话的艺术是重要的,那是因为我们知道决定语言的意思的因素不只是概念本身。说话就是一种「技艺」,而没有人可以依靠说明书就成为说话的高手;语言这项技艺,就如同骑脚踏车的技艺一样,需要学习者的实作,以「默会致知」的方式将其内化。


概念、命题并不比身体优先。博蓝尼告诉我们,默会知识具有优先性,只要把人跟动物相比,这个事实就会被凸显出来。所有动物赖以为生的知识,都是无法被言述的默会知识,而人类因为握有使用语言的能力,因此在智力和文化水平上高于动物。表面上看来,人类因为语言而大量产生的「言述知识」似乎盖过了「默会知识」的重要性;然而,我们对于语言能力的掌握,其实是随着年龄、生活经验、与人互动以及求知的过程中不断精进、扩大与变化的。

就如同一位初生的婴儿并不懂得运用语言进行思考与表达,他与世界最直接的接触点是他双眼、耳朵、鼻子、嘴巴与四肢,他对世界的知识源自于身体的默会。而后,当他开始懂得使用语言、运用符号,他原本用身体学到关于世界的知识,便与语言这个新的工具带来的新知识交融在一起。所以,语言对于人类来说,同样也是一种知识的「身体化」,人类运用语言,就像运用自己的身体一样,总有我们自己无法转译的规则。

人类语言知识的从无到有,从肢体动作到语言符号的过程中,我们的「理解力」始终在作用着,而语言与身体一样,都是被「理解力」内化的「工具」。所以,如果我们内化了语言这项技艺,我们就拥有一个语言化的身体,以及身体化的语言;我们运用语言思考、认识世界,那么我们就寓居于语言之中形构我们的世界。

背诵与默会知识
语言的用字遣词、声腔、节律、言述策略等修辞意识,正是语言技艺的大观。学习一种语言技艺,就是将这些语言因素内化为我们思考、表达的器官。学习语言技艺,我们通常会认为「潜移默化」是最自然的方式,但是背诵也有它存在的意义。

严格来说,潜移默化当中也有「记忆」的存在。事实上,我们在日常中是透过反复操作、调整、精进的语言实践,以及各种新的与旧的经验相互摩擦、嵌入、配合,才掌握了日常语言的技艺。此时,「记忆」自然而然地发生,而非透过明显而直接的外力驱使,但潜移默化的「记忆」仍发生在身体之中,所以我们才能将语言「技艺」内化。

潜移默化的背景通常是日常生活,口语的表达方式虽然自然,但人类的思维与意念毕竟不止于此。我们还有更多日常以外的时刻,需要挖掘心灵的暗角,我们有时需要理解世界中难以言喻、超乎逻辑但却迷人或者伤人的时刻,那些人与人之间的摩荡、交接之际,幽微而不可言说的种种,那些关于人生虽不可测但你总渴望追求的问题,并不是日常生活的语言技艺可以捕捉与处理的。



日常语言无法言述,但是透过文学语言,我们得以追求。龙应台曾经说过这样一句话:

「为什么需要文学?了解文学、接近文学,对我们形成价值判断有什么关系?如果说,文学有一百种所谓『功能』,而我必须选择一种最重要的,我的答案是:德文有一个很精确的说法,machtsichtbar,意思是『使看不见的东西被看见』。在我自己的体认中,这就是文学跟艺术最重要、最实质、最核心的一个作用。」

如果文学可以使许多看不见的东西被看见,那么将这种语言技艺内化、记忆,使其中的思维方式、节律美感、布局策略成为我们思想的器官,装备我们观看世界、接触世界的身体,我们将会看见许多日常语言看不见的风景。因为,我们熟练了「什么样」的语言,我们就寓居于「什么样」的世界。

「背诵」,是为了熟悉一种与日常语言有所差异的语言工具,就如同盲人掌握了手杖、长辈接触了智慧型手机,对他们而言,「世界」都不再是从前那个样子,而认知的方式也因为装备了不同的「肢体」,而有了转化。

「背诵」,就如同当初你学习挥动捶子却不免受伤,你试着滑水踢腿在泳池中呛水浮沈,而那些陌生的语言就如同无法被归类、定义的物体,横在我们面前而难以入咽。一旦学会以后,那些规则、指引都化为无形,透明如空气,而你终于得以钉下钉子,自在泅泳,在语言中认知、内省与想像。这就是在我们重探「背诵」的意义时,可以在博蓝尼的「默会知识」理论中得到的启示。

以上我们通过博蓝尼之眼,重探了「背诵」的意义,也点出了基于「命题知识」的立场,对原文做出翻译所将牺牲的东西。在下一篇文章中,我们将从诗人罗毓嘉的创作经验,谈背诵中的身体,以及身体中的语言。
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Monte cook:PDF revolution
« 回帖 #1 于: 2020-04-26, 周日 03:39:21 »
10 Years: From Idea to Industry (by Monte Cook)
2011年5月28日上午2:29
This essay first ran the 5/19/2011 issue of the DriveThruRPG Newsletter. It's Monte's story and observations about the PDF revolution in the RPG industry, as seen from the eyes of a man who can truly be said to have started it all...

 

 

10 Years: From Idea to Industry

By Monte Cook

 

It started on my living room floor. That's where I sat, surrounded by a bunch of papers and things where I'd drawn up a plan. I sat with Sue, my wife, and my friend Bruce. I asked them, "If I price it at just 5 dollars, do you think maybe 50 people would buy it?"

 

Bruce said yes.

 

"100 people?"

 

He nodded, but seemed less sure. I was worried.

 

The year was 2001. We were talking about a short product that I had an idea for, called The Book of Eldritch Might. (I was a fan of the word "eldritch" being a fan of Dr. Strange from way back.) We were so leery not because of the product itself, however, but because of its format and delivery system. This would be an electronic-only product. A downloadable file. A pdf. I'd only heard that acronym a few times before, back at Wizards of the Coast.

 

Most don't remember this, but Wizards had tried to sell electronic products back in 2000. One was a Dark Matter supplement, The Final Church, released as a pdf for sale, and the other a Star*Drive product, The Externals, created as a hybrid pdf/html product. The revenue and interest generated was negligible for Wizards of the Coast, and the whole idea was scrapped. (It was because of these early failures that Wizards of the Coast only reluctantly entered into the electronic market, and only very, very late.) But I had heard through the grapevine that the pdf products had sold at least a thousand downloads. More importantly, I saw a bit later that Wizards of the Coast was having wild success with free (pdf) downloadable products, particularly adventures. Miguel Duran's Burning Plague adventure, for example This was an important development because, had hundreds of thousands of downloads. It was likely the most accessed 3rd edition adventure ever. This meant that the 3rd Edition D&D audience was very accustomed to using pdf products. I was intrigued.

 

In April of 2001, I left Wizards of the Coast. I intended to work freelance while trying to figure out a way to get my own material published. This idea of a downloadable product was still in my head. I could write it, Sue could edit it, my friend JD could provide some artwork, but how would I actually sell and deliver it?

 

And most importantly, would anyone buy it?

 

Well first things first. One night soon after I was on my own, I stayed up all night, scouring the Internet. I looked for someone else doing what I wanted to do. I found very little. A company named 0one Games was selling an adventure, S. John Ross was producing a handful of downloadable game products, and that was about it. None of them used a payment or delivery method that I liked or thought I could use. (And a fact that would become important later, they were all different.)

 

Eventually, I found a company online that hosted downloadable patches for software and a few other kinds of small electronic products. They weren't selling anything like what I was considering, so their main storefront did me no good. I'd have to point to the product's sales page entirely on my own.

So I had the means to sell and deliver it. But would anyone buy it? Would anyone ever even find out about it? I worried that people would find the format unweildy. And I worried that people would not know or understand Malhavoc Press (the name of my new little company).

 

As a test, after the launch of montecook.com, we immediately hosted a free pdf, a 4-page presentation of an alternate ranger class. I was excited when it flew off the virtual shelf. It was also interesting that when I realized that I had made an error in the product, it was easy to change it and simply make a new, error-free version available. (The last time I checked, the alternate ranger had been downloaded almost 200,000 times.)

But what I still didn't know was, would anyone actually find such a thing worth spending money on?

 

The Book of Eldritch Might

 

My fears were put to rest the day The Book of Eldritch Might released: May 27th, 2001. Those 100 copies I wondered if I would sell over the life of the product? We sold more than that in the first hour. In fact, in the first day, we sold 1,000 copies. And, as a little bit of trivia, our very first customer was a guy by the name of Eric Noah, who founded what would eventually become ENWorld. That site would become crucial to our ability to get the word out about our new products.

 

The day after its release, two different print publishers contacted me interested in putting The Book of Eldritch Might into print. I made a deal with the one that contacted me first, Sword and Sorcery, a newly created imprint of White Wolf Publishing.

 

It quickly became obvious that pdfs were a viable format for releasing products. Many, many people emailed me to tell me that they didn't like it, that they wanted print books, that it was awful having to print the thing out, and so on. But the sales figures showed that there were plenty of people who did like it and were happy with it.

The next few days and weeks were a blur. Malhavoc Press became my primary professional concern, and not too long thereafter we would realize that we could afford to have Sue quit her job so that she could work full time on Malhavoc as well.

 

Meanwhile, others began assembling and pdf rpg products as well. Small companies like RPGObjects, Anubium, Bard's Productions, Thunderhead Games, and many more began to produce RPG pdfs, while others already in the market producing print products jumped in with pdfs as well, like Mongoose, Mystic Eye, and Bastion Press, to name just a few. But everyone was having to reinvent the wheel on how to host, sell, and deliver these things. Just as important, there was no centralized hub for pdfs. Customers didn't know where to go to look for new releases. We longed for a pdf store where all our "books" could be on a "shelf" together.

 

RPGNow

 

It was just later that same year that James Mathe created RPGNow, a storefront for gaming pdf products. I must admit, I was skeptical at first. I didn't know James, and I wasn't sure that RPGNow would last. I also didn't know if Malhavoc's support of RPGNow would help them more than the reverse, for we were certainly selling a lot of products on our own, and experiencing a lot of web traffic. And I may have been right about that latter fact, at least right then, but soon RPGNow became a go-to destination for rpg products in electronic form.

 

Eventually, RPGNow would even make a deal with Wizards of the Coast to sell products from older editions of D&D or other out of print materials. Soon "RPGNow" became synonymous with "gaming pdfs." Making it onto one of their top 10 lists was often considered to be a sign that a company or an author had truly arrived.

 

Experiments with the Form

 

As the electronic format grew, we saw a lot of experimentation the form. Screen-friendly layouts (usually landscape oriented) and printer-friendly versions of books (low on art and graphics so as not to burn through your ink cartridge) became popular. Bookmarks became essential, as did the option to be able to copy/paste from the document.

 

A question arose amid all of this. Did pdfs need to feel like the rpg books that came before them--with a cover, a back cover, art throughout, and so forth? Or was it its own medium. One of the pioneers in creating pdfs that were not anything like books, Phil Reed of Ronin Arts, created a great many very short, very utilitarian, very inexpensive pdf products. This sort of product, often offering a small number of feats or magic items, a single new class or monster, and so on, became a model that many publishers adopted and was very successful. Most of the stime, these products were 99 cents or a dollar. Before this, the standard price for a pdf had been 5 dollars. I always found this amusing because I'm pretty sure that's because The Book of Eldritch Might had been 5 dollars. But of course, I had no idea how to price that originally, and just went with the cheapest price my vendor at the time would accept.

 

Other explorations of what pdfs could do took a very different path. Some publishers, like SkeletonKey Games and Fiery Dragon, released terrain tiles and counters. This was innovative because these high-quality artistic products could be printed out over and over again--very useful to players and GMs (and, I suppose, to printer ink manufacturers).

 

Meanwhile, Back at Malhavoc Press

 

Throughout the next few years, we published a number of smaller products, both in print and pdf. I was struggling with a number of conventional retailers, who claimed that making things available electronically would ensure that the product would never sell in print. Others condescendingly claimed that now that I had a deal in place to publish in print, I should give up this silly little pdf publishing. Sales figures on both sides proved them all wrong. There was a market for both versions of each product we produced, making it a very exciting time for us. With the OGL, the number of new publishers entering both sides of the market, the whole industry was a vibrant place.

 

For our part, we did less to innovate the presentation of pdfs, instead focusing on larger and more deluxe products. In 2003, Monte Cook's Arcana Unearthed was our largest pdf at 256 pages, but was soon undone by the even more deluxe, full-color Arcana Evolved in 2005, at 432 pages. We worried that these products would be too large to be desirable as electronic files, or that their deluxe nature would make people want a print version only, but again our worries were unfounded. Features like cut/paste, bookmarks and in particular the searchability of electronic books made them extremely useful in using large books.

 

Rise of the Ebook

 

Soon the pdf industry fueled such a busy marketplace that other vendors appeared to create new places for customers to find product. In 2005, DriveThruRPG (and its associated sites like DriveThruComics, DriveThruFantasy, and so on) appeared. DriveThru's interesting take on the pdf phenomenon was to encourage existing print publishers to make their existing books, including (and perhaps especially) older, out of print material available to gamers. I can tell you that the most compelling reason for a publisher to do this is that it means that nothing ever goes out of stock or out of print. One of the most frustrating things, from a publisher's point of view, is when a customer wants to buy their product but can't because it's not on the right store shelf at the right time. With pdfs, the product is always on the shelf all the time.

 

That's fantastic.

 

White Wolf Publishing, Game Designer's Workshop, FASA, Chaosium, and other long-time fan favorites made their products into pdfs through DriveThru. To entice leery publishers, DriveThru implemented piracy-protection features into their products, but these proved to be very unpopular with customers and eventually such measures were removed.

Steve Wieck of DriveThru even managed to convince Wizards of the Coast to sell new products in pdf form. (I played a very small role in those negotiations as well.) Eventually, however, the company would decide to stop selling those pdfs. DriveThru quickly became the market leader in pdf sales, and eventually, that site and RPGNow would merge into a single company, OneBookShelf.

 

In the non-game world, the latter years of the decade saw a revolution in traditional publishing, and the emergence of the ebook as a viable format for regular fiction and nonfiction became undeniable. Ebook readers like Amazon's Kindle, Barnes and Noble's Nook, and related apps on smart phones and iPads made ebooks accessible to everyone. They made them easy and even fun to use. The general public discovered what many gamers had known for a few years--that electronic books offer advantages in storage and usability that traditional books cannot. While many find that there is a certain kind of satisfaction in holding and reading a print book (and there's nothing wrong with that--I have a large library of them myself), e-readers and tablets make ebooks almost as nice to read. Some people prefer them.

 

Today

 

In 2005, we at Malhavoc Press launched our most ambitious product ever: Ptolus, Monte Cook's City by the Spire. This huge, ultra-deluxe product was a single tome, but by that point we knew the value of electronic books and included a CD-Rom with each print edition that contained support products, additional material, and some of the same material found in the book itself so that it could be printed out as needed. We eventually released Ptolus as a number of individual pdfs divided up by topic, but due to customer demand (and the fact that the print book sold out rather quickly) we also made the entire book available as a single pdf for those that wanted it.

 

After Ptolus, the number of products from Malhavoc Press slowed considerably, but we have produced a few things such as The Books of Experimental Might. I do enjoy keeping my hand in rpg design even as I work on other kinds of writing.

The advent of 4th Edition D&D and its more restrictive license meant that the number of publishers producing support for the game shrank, although many continued to use the OGL to create pdfs compatible with 3rd edition as well as Paizo Publishing's Pathfinder game. Now, pdf publishers continue to make more and more interesting products available each day, which if compared to how things were just 10 years ago is quite astonishing itself.

 

And looking to the future, we see that the whole marketplace has come full circle. With the advent of print on demand publishing, or POD, products that were pdfs can be delivered to customers as high quality print books. Which means that not only are pdfs always "on the shelf," but print books can be on the "virtual" shelf all the time as well. At Malhavoc, we're excited and proud to have Monte Cook's Arcana Evolved, the Complete Book of Eldrtich Might, and other products available once again as print books thanks to POD. Soon, we'll be able to even add Ptolus to that list, which is very exciting.

 

In 2001, I tried very hard to spread the word that electronic publishing was the wave of the future. While I was scoffed at numerous times, I stuck with that opinion. And now I'm proud to say that the future I envisioned is here. I will admit, however, that if you would have found me that night I scoured the Internet looking for a way to sell my first pdf, and told me that 10 years later people would refer to the rpg pdf industry, or that the marketplace would be able to sustain many different gaming pdf storefronts, with dozens of new products available each week, even I would have likely doubted you. It's been an interesting 10 years, to say the least. I'm happy and proud to have been a part of it.

Here's to another 10 years for Malhavoc Press, gaming ebooks, and gaming in general. As I said all those years ago: "Go PDF!"

离线 笨哈

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知识诅咒
« 回帖 #2 于: 2020-10-11, 周日 17:35:01 »
https://wiki.mbalib.com/zh-tw/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E8%AF%85%E5%92%92

1990年伊丽莎白·牛顿(Elizabeth Newton)在斯坦福大学所做的关于一个简单游戏的研究。在这个游戏中,她把参与者分为两种角色:“敲击者”和“听众”。每个敲击者会拿到一张有25首名曲(针对美国人民)的清单,例如《祝你生日快乐》和美国国歌《星条旗永不落》,每位敲击者要做的事情就是从中挑选一首并通过敲桌子把这个节奏敲给听众听,然后让听众根据敲击的节奏猜出歌曲。

  这个游戏听起来很简单,但是实际情况却是很艰巨。在伊丽莎白的实验过程中,敲击者敲出了120首曲子的节奏,而听众仅猜出了其中的2.5%,也即120首里的3首。更有趣的是,在听众猜歌曲名前,伊丽莎白让敲击者预测听众猜对的概率,他们预测概率为50%。

  敲击者传递的信息40次中才有1次被理解,但是他们认为2次就有1次,为什么呢?

  当一个敲击者敲打的时候,他听到的是他脑子里的歌曲。因为他知道那首歌的歌名,比如说“祝你生日快乐”,于是他的脑海里一直在回圈著这首歌——不可能避免在脑中听到曲调。但是对听众来说,他的脑袋里没有“歌名”这个信息,他不知道这首歌具体是什么,也就听不到这个曲调——他们所能听到的仅是:嗒,嗒嗒,嗒嗒嗒。

  做一个敲击者很难。问题在于敲击者已拥有的知识(歌曲题目)让他们想像不到缺乏这种知识会是什么情形。当他们敲击的时候,他们不能想像听众听到的是那些度里的敲击声而不是一首曲子。这就是“知识的诅咒”。

知识诅咒的相关场景
  物理学家兼哈佛大学教育学家埃里克.马祖尔认为,对某事了解得越多,把它教授给其他人的难度就越大。

  《复仇者联盟3》中灭霸曾对钢铁侠说,你不是唯一一个被知识所诅咒的人!

  从心理学上来说,知识诅咒是因为我们认为这个很容易,地球人都知道。为什么会这样的呢?因为我们对我自己已经掌握、已经熟悉、已经理解的东西会在价值观假设上,会做出错误的估计。

  家长教孩子写作业:
  没有一个陪孩子写作业的妈妈不得心梗的。

  老员工指导新下属:
  比如说工作中布置工作任务,你讲了一百遍,下属还是没听懂,交上来的结果总是让人不满意。

  教师传授学问:
  教师通常会受知识诅咒错觉的影响——认为微积分非常容易的教师,在面对刚接触这一科目或是学不好这一科目的学生时,就不能从学生的角度考虑问题/“知识诅咒”。


知识诅咒的原因
  1.心智模型发生变化。心智模型改变了知识的记忆背景。

  当你在某些领域成为专业人士或专家后,你的心智模型就会发展得更为复杂,而组成心智模型的步骤也会淡化成记忆背景(知识诅咒)。

  以一个物理学家为例,她可以创造一个由物理规律构成的心智模型库(或认知系统),解决在工作中遇到的各种问题,比如运用牛顿运动定律。她会倾向于用这些基本的规律来解决问题,而新手则靠问题表面特点的相似性将其分门别类,例如问题中涉及的装置(滑轮、斜面等)。某一天,当物理学教授要讲物理学入门知识的时候,她会讲怎样用牛顿力学中的知识来解决特定问题,而忘了她的学生还没有熟练掌握自己早已形成心智模型的基本步骤。教授假设她的学生会轻松地听懂复杂的课程,因为在她看来,这些都是极其基础的。

  2.认知错误。

  教授假设她的学生会轻松地听懂复杂的课程,因为在她看来,这些都是极其基础的——这就是元认知错误,是对她知道的东西和她学生知道的东西之间匹配程度的误判。

  马祖尔说,最了解学生们在接受新概念上有什么困难的不是教授,而是其他学生。这是为什么呢?因为他们心智模型相同、认知相近。


如何打破知识诅咒
  方法一

  1、明确学习对象:学习的接收者是他而不是你。

  2、换位思考问题:不要只从个人的角度,而要从学习者从他人的角度来看问题。

  3、寻找沟通方法:从学习者的角度构思沟通方法。

  这个方法实际上不仅仅适用于知识的传授,概念的讲解、也适用信息的传递、经验的传承、观念的沟通、认知的交互等。

  实际上,上面的步骤可以理解为:改变心智模型,消除认知偏差,获得同频同理。

  方法二

  1. 搭台阶

  善于借用对方已知的信息来减少这个知识和信息断层。

  这种通过类比等方式,借用对方已知的信息来减少这个断层方法我们并不陌生。在认知心理学中,我们称为用基模(基模由我们记忆中预先存储的海量信息组成),基模可以提供深度的简单。

  当然如果你发现你们双方的认知不仅是断层,而是一个深坑,你除了用类别的方法外,还可以采用拆分这种搭台阶的方式,化复杂为简单。这有点像我们小时候搭积木的过程,比如我们在课程设计中就经常采用这种方法,或按逻辑线拆分,或按要素线拆分,有效筛选出关键信息,逐步给予对方相关的信息知识,这样对方既容易理解,也不会因为一开始太难而失去兴趣。

  当然,有人在使用这个方法时会纠结于是准确优先,还是易懂优先;我个人判断的标准是一定要回归到沟通的对象和目的。否则准确而无用的观点,终究还是无用的。

  2. 接地气

  A:善于用大白话提炼分享复杂信息

  这里指的大白话不是没有养分的口水话,而是能把你的核心思想用大家易懂易记的方式表达出来,即我们把问题说得深入浅出。   B:善于用具体作为抽象的基础

  我们很小时候都有这样学算术的经验,10-3=?你学起来可能不那么快;但如果给你设个场景,比如我给你10个苹果,你吃了3个,还剩几个?这样更容易学习。

  研究人员把这类提问方法称为“语境算术”,用具体作为抽象的基础,不仅适用于数学教学,而且是人类理解的基本原理。沟通当中我们碰到抽象不好懂的概念和问题时,用理论解释理论,从抽象到抽象往往会让大家更糊涂,但你这时举个具体的例子,讲个故事,跨专业的人就很容易理解。

  还有很多时候,你还可以充分借用语言之外的方式增加理解,比如实物的模型或使用的场景;比如高新技术介绍时,你光说自己的技术如何先进让人无感,但如果你能展示一个个具体使用的场景,甚至加上互动和体验更容易让用户了解、记忆和决策。

  3. 善观察

  有了“搭台阶,接地气”这些招式策略,那咱啥时候用呢?

  A:提前预判准备

  很多沟通者在准备和分享自己的专业领域知识时容易过度沉浸在自己的世界中,但往往忽视了沟通交流是一个跳双人舞的过程,无论对象是谁,都是一个套路,确实容易陷入“不看对象,对牛弹琴”的困境中。

  B:现场观察调整锻鍊自己沟通中的双核处理能力。

  在专注于自己沟通目的和内容的同时,还要关注听众的反应,特别是听众中的关键人物。他们的一些微小身体语言的变化,比如皱眉、注意力转移、提出让你再解释一下等都在给你早期或中期信号。